Integrate theory research and/or professional experience.Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation] Cite a workplace application or organizational example of what we are learning.
Integrate theory research and/or professional experience.Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation] Cite a workplace application or organizational example of what we are learning.
Include specific examples and/or substantiating evidence from course readings and research
Stay on topic and address the course objectives
Provide a new thought idea or perspective.
Demonstrate critical thinking skills and application of Blooms Taxonomy [Blooms Taxonomy for distinctions of writing that are expected: 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Applications 4.Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation] Cite a workplace application or organizational example of what we are learning.
Add a new twist or interpretation on a reference perspective.
Use critical thinking about an idea/concept or comparison and contrast.
Question or challenge a principle/perspective with sound rationale
Demonstrate proper spelling grammar and scholarly tone
W6DQ1: How do research questions frame and guide studies?
W6DQ2: What type of research questions would lead to a qualitative study? To a quantitative one? How would the wording differ? Discuss these questions relative to your field of study.
W6DQ3: How does a researcher determine how many research questions and hypotheses are needed for a particular study? Do all research studies require hypotheses?
W6DQ4: Why might a hypothesis be inappropriate for a qualitative study?
W6DQ5:* Is a quantitative study that has a research question but no hypothesis weaker than one with a hypothesis? Why or why not?
W6DQ6: How are research questions different from survey and/or interview questions?
TRIANGULATION
Surveyors and sailors measure distances between objects by taking observations from multiple positions. By observing the object from several different angles or viewpoints the surveyors and sailors can obtain a good fix on an objects true location (see Figure 6.1). Social researchers employ a similar process of triangulation. In social research we build on the principle that we learn more by observing from multiple perspectives than by looking from only a single perspective.
Triangulation
The idea that looking at something from multiple points of view improves accuracy.
Social researchers use several types of triangulation (see Expansion Box 6.1 Example of Four Types of Triangulation). The most common type is triangulation of measure meaning that we take multiple measures of the same phenomena. For example you want to learn about a persons health. First you ask the person to complete a questionnaire with multiple-choice answers. Next you conduct an open-ended informal interview. You also ask a live-in partner/caregiver about the persons health. You interview the individuals physician and together examine his or her medical records and lab test results. Your confidence that you have an accurate picture grows from the multiple measures you used compared to relying on just one especially if each measure offers a similar picture. Differences you see among the measures stimulates questions as well.
figure 6.1 Triangulation: Observing from Different Viewpoints
expansion box 6.1 Example of Four Types of Triangulation
TOPIC
The amount of violence in popular American films
Measures: Create three quantitative measures of violence: the frequency (e.g. number of killings punches) intensity (e.g. volume and length of time screaming amount of pain shown in face or body movement) and level of explicit graphic display (e.g. showing a corpse with blood flowing amputated body parts close-ups of injury) in films.
Observers: Have five different people independently watch evaluate and record the forms and degrees of violence in a set of ten highly popular American films.
Theory: Compare how a feminist a functional and a symbolic interaction theory explains the forms causes and societal results of violence that is in popular films.
Method: Conduct a content analysis of a set of ten popular films as an experiment to measure the responses of experimental subjects to violence in each film to survey attitudes toward film violence among the movie-going public and to make field observations on audience behavior during and immediately after showing the films.
Triangulation of observers is a variation on the first type. In many studies we conduct interviews or are the lone observer of events and behavior. Any limitations of a single observer (e.g. lack of skill in an area a biased view on an issue inattention to certain details) become restrictions of the study. Multiple observers bring alternative perspectives backgrounds and social characteristics. They thereby reduce the limitations. For example two people interact with and observe the behavior of ten 5-year-old children at a child care center. One of the observers is a 60-year-old White male pediatrician with 25 years of experience working in a large city hospital. The other is a 31-year-old Hispanic female mother of two children who has 6 years of experience as an elementary school teacher in a small town. Each observer may notice and record different data. Combining what both see and experience will produce a fuller picture than relying on either one alone.
Triangulation of theory requires using multiple theoretical perspectives to plan a study or interpret the data. Each theoretical perspective has assumptions and concepts. They operate as a lens through which to view the social world. For example a study of work relations in a bank could use conflict theory with its emphasis on power differences and inequality. The study could highlight the pay and working condition inequalities based on positions of authority (e.g. manager versus teller). The study reveals relevant differences in social backgrounds: a middle-aged White male manager with an MBA and a young African American female teller with an associates degree. Next rational choice theory is applied to focus on decision-making and rational strategies individuals use to maximize personal benefits. This perspective highlights how the bank manager varies the time/effort he devotes to various customers depending on their loan or savings account size. It also presents a better picture of how the teller invests her time and energy differently with various supervisors depending on whether she believes they might help her get a promotion. Each perspective guides the study: It identifies relevant data provides a set of concepts and helps to interpret the meaning and significance of the data.
Triangulation of method mixes the qualitative and quantitative research approaches and data. Most researchers develop an expertise in one approach but the approaches have complementary strengths. A study that combines both tends to be richer and more comprehensive. Mixing them occurs in several ways:1 by using the approaches sequentially first one and then the other or by using them in parallel or simultaneously. In the study that opened this chapter Klinenberg mixed a statistical analysis of quantitative data on deaths with interviews and document analysis. (seeExample Box 6.1 A Multimethod Study on page 166).
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ORIENTATIONS TOWARD RESEARCH
In all research we strive to collect empirical data systematically and to examine data patterns so we can better understand and explain social life yet differences between research approaches can create miscommunication and misunderstandings. They are mutually intelligible; grasping both approaches and seeing how each complements the other simply takes more time and effort. Next we will look at some sources of differences.
A first difference originates in the nature of the data itself. Soft data (i.e. words sentences photos symbols) dictate qualitative research strategies and data collection techniques that differ from hard data (in the form of numbers) for which quantitative approaches are used. Such differences may make the tools for a quantitative study inappropriate or irrelevant for a qualitative study and vice versa.
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