Hierarchical Categorization

 
Mental   representations refer to information that is stored mentally.
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Reasoning and Problem-Solving
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· SOLVING PROBLEMS
Every day we need to solve problems to achieve goals. These may be simple, like deciding what to eat and who to see, or they may be complex, such as completing school assignments and resolving conflict. Problem-solving consists of identifying a goal and the steps to reach the goal, as well as how to overcome obstacles. We will now discuss four problem-solving strategies or mechanisms that children learn that enable them to process information more efficiently.
Solving Problems Using Cognitive Tools
· COGNITIVE TOOLS
· SCRIPTS
· COGNITIVE MAPS
· SYMBOLIC TOOLS
Cognitive tools or external aids, like maps, calendars and language, support intelligent action by enhancing our actions. An analogy of this is how we use tools like screwdrivers and hammers. How difficult would it be to drive screws and nails into walls without screwdrivers and hammers? It would be very difficult. We will now look at three cognitive tools that enable us to function more easily.
Solving Problems Using Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Piaget focused a lot on how children use logic to develop his theory of cognitive development. Deductive reasoning is a kind of logic that looks at conclusions that are based on a set of statements or premises. Syllogisms are a kind of deductive reasoning that bases conclusions on a major premise and a minor premise. For instance: All dogs are animals. All poodles are dogs. Therefore, all poodles are animals.
Transitive Reasoning
Transitive reasoning focuses on quantitative information that follows an ordered sequence – for instance, if Peter is taller than Chris, and Chris is taller than Joe, who is the tallest? Children younger than six or seven are generally unable to deduce answers from this kind of information. However, four-year olds are able to organize objects in order of size if presented in a familiar or simple form, such as in pictures (Goswami, 1995).
Hierarchical Categorization
Hierarchical categorization or class inclusion is the abstract arrangement of concepts from the specific to the general. For instance, not all dogs are poodles but all poodles are dogs. Studies have shown that children begin to develop this ability at a very young age – perhaps as young as one year (Mandler & Bauer, 1988).
Numerical Reasoning
Numerical Reasoning
Numerical reasoning enables children to use numbers to reason and solve problems, and is a particularly important aspect of schooling. Piaget’s principle of conservation is an important factor in numeracy, as it relates to how children understand that the value of a set does not change even if it appears to. Recall the video on Piaget’s developmental stages at the beginning of the lesson, in which the young girl counted the number of coins in a row, but then thought that there were more coins when the row was spread out.
Numeracy Principles
Gelman and Gallistel (1978) outlined five numeracy principles children develop. These include:
1. Each object can only be counted once.
2. A number can be assigned to represent the total of a set.
3. Numbers are always assigned in the same order.
4. Objects can be counted in any order.
5. These principles apply to any group of objects.
Children as young as three may be able to apply some of these rules, or they may only be able to apply them to a limited set of numbers – for instance from one to five. As development progresses, children are able to apply all the rules and to larger sets of numbers.
Mediators
Research confirms the role of sociocultural mediators in cognitive development. For instance, Miller, Smith, Zhu and Zhang (1995) suggest that language impacts mathematical ability, whereby Chinese children have superior mathematical skills because the numbering system in Mandarin is more easily comprehended than the numbering system in English.
Metacognition
Humans have an awareness of how we solve problems and control our cognitive processing. This knowing about knowing is referred to as metacognition. When children understand their cognitive capacity as well as the task, they are able to adapt their strategies to enhance their cognition and successfully achieve the task. For instance, older children have an awareness of how much they know, and that they will not learn well when tired or unwell.
Development of Metacognition
Knowledge about the task is one aspect of metacognition. As metacognition develops, children are able to assess their own state of knowledge in relation to the tasks they need to complete, so they can obtain the requisite knowledge. For example, younger children tend not to realize when they need more information to complete tasks, and four-year olds understand that more complex tasks take more effort (Wellman, 1978).
Knowledge about Strategies
Knowledge about strategies is a second aspect of metacognition. For instance, children know that association and external aids, such as making notes, can aid memory (Wellman, 1977). As children get older, they become more aware of which strategies are most appropriate and effective for the task at hand. Metacognition is also about being aware of when a strategy is ineffective and changing it. Interestingly, Carr and Jessup (1995) note that adults do not even always have this capacity.
Knowledge Check
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Question 1
Please select the two correct statements.
 
An   analogy of cognitive tools is an instruction booklet for a new appliance.
 
The   two components of metacognition are premises and conclusions.
 
The   effectiveness of an individual’s problem-solving is a function of their   reasoning, which is a function of their cognitive development.
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Conclusion
This lesson on cognitive development covered three main areas. The first area looked at Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, in which we explored the four stages of cognitive development and the various substages. Although Piaget’s theory is useful and comprehensive, we did critically analyze it. The second area we covered was Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development, in which the zone of proximal development is a core concept. The third area we explored was the information-processing approach. We looked at the different information-processing models and how logical and numerical reasoning are key factors in problem-solving. We lastly looked at metacognition which refers to knowing about knowing.

 

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